It was found that 81.5 per cent among those surveyed belonged to the marginalised SC, ST, and OBC communities and the rest were from the general category. The survey found lower levels of income and educational attainment among SC and ST groups compared to OBC groups, and their higher representation in low-paying, irregular jobs in coal-dumping yards, coal sidings, coal loading, coal transport, coal washeries and other informal work.

This disparity, the report said, indicated the challenges that marginalised groups will face as India gradually phases down coal use, resulting in significant job losses and economic downturns in coal-dependent regions. This will not only impact coal miners and workers directly but also the broader local economy.

“Without a clear plan in place, workers in declining industries may face sudden job losses without adequate support or alternative employment opportunities, exacerbating tensions within the affected communities,” said Pooja Gupta, researcher and co-author of the study.

The survey-based study found a clear correlation between caste and educational attainment. Households with primary education or no education were more prominent among SCs, STs and OBCs.

“In coal-producing districts such as Dhanbad and Koriya, nearly 57.5% and 52% of the marginalised communities had no formal education or had only primary education,” the NFI report said.

Further, 65 per cent of respondents reported experiencing skin issues, while respiratory diseases prevailed among several respondents because of prolonged exposure to pollutants from coal mines.

India’s last nationally determined contribution submitted to the United Nations has committed to reducing the emissions intensity of its gross domestic product by 45 per cent by 2030 from the 2005 levels and achieving 50 per cent cumulative electric power installed capacity from sources based on non-fossil fuels by 2030.

For this, India plans to phase down coal use. Transitioning away from coal is expected to affect 13 million people and 266 districts would be vulnerable to the change, as per a 2021 NFI report.

Biraj Patnaik, Executive Director, NFI, said the stark caste-based inequalities in coal-dependent regions need targeted policies as India transitions away from coal. “There is an urgent need for community-specific policies and robust institutional mechanisms to address the socio-economic impacts of coal transition on marginalised communities,” he said.